Abstract
In this work, we investigate qualitative backlight imaging-based spray characteristics and laser-induced incandescence (LII) based quantitative soot volume fraction (SVF) in a CFM56 model combustor with a simplex nozzle at 1 bar, 303 K. The soot volume fraction is quantitatively measured using an in situ extinction-based calibration technique. Soot was detected immediately downstream of the swirler exit and in the shear layer region as observed by other authors. In addition, soot was also detected inside the inner recirculation region which could be due to the spray distribution, geometry, or difference in flame anchoring. The number-averaged soot volume fraction is of the order of 20 ppb which is comparable in magnitude to previously reported combustor measurements. Large eddy simulation (LES) modeling of the experimental setup coupled with the simple two-equation Tesner model has been done using ansysfluent® to study soot formation. The model shows good qualitative agreement with the experimental results although quantitatively it is lower by one order of magnitude. Soot formation occurs in the rich region immediately downstream of the swirler while the second half of the primary zone becomes lean and soot oxidation is more dominant.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
Topics:
Calibration,
Combustion chambers,
Flames,
Lasers,
Light emission,
Soot,
Sprays,
Flow (Dynamics),
Imaging,
Temperature
References
1.
United States, Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
, 2010
, “CAEP/8 NOx Stringency Cost-Benefit Analysis Demonstration Using APMT-Impact
,” CAEP/8-IP/30.http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/partner/reports/caep8/caep8-nox-using-apmt.pdf2.
International Civil Aviation Organization
, 2017
, “CO2 Certification Requirement
,” Annex 16, Vol. 3, International Standards and Recommended Practices.https://www.icao.int/newsroom/pages/icao-counciladopts-new-co2-emissions-standard-for-aircraft.aspx3.
SAE Aerospace
, 1997
, “Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Exhaust Smoke Measurement
,” ARP1179D.https://www.sae.org/standards/content/arp1179d/4.
Champagne
,
D. L.
, 1971
, “
Standard Measurement of Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Exhaust Smoke
,” ASME
Paper No. GT-71-88.10.1115/GT-71-885.
Toipadi
,
A. K.
,
Danis
,
A. M.
,
Mongia
,
H. C.
, and
Lindstedt
,
R. P.
, 1997
, “
Soot Modelling in Gas Turbine Combustors
,” ASME
Paper No. 97-GT-149.10.1115/97-GT-1496.
Ballal
,
D. R.
, and
Zelina
,
J.
, 2003
, “
Progress in Aeroengine Technology (1939–2003)
,” J. Aircr.
,
41
(1
).10.2514/1.5627.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
, 2011
, “The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act From 1990 to 2020
,” Report.https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-07/documents/mainbody51203.pdf8.
Joint, W.H.O. and World Health Organization
, 2006
, “Health Risks of Particulate Matter From Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
,” No. EUR/05/5046028.
WHO Regional Office for Europe
,
Copenhagen, Denmark
.https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/78657/E88189.pdf9.
Dellinger
,
B.
,
Pryor
,
W. A.
,
Cueto
,
R.
,
Squadrito
,
G. L.
,
Hegde
,
V.
, and
Deutsch
,
W. A.
, 2001
, “
Role of Free Radicals in the Toxicity of Airborne Fine Particulate Matter
,” Chem. Res. Toxicol.
,
14
(10
), pp. 1371
–1377
.10.1021/tx010050x10.
Heinrich
,
U.
,
Fuhst
,
R.
,
Rittinghausen
,
S.
,
Creutzenberg
,
O.
,
Bellmann
,
B.
,
Koch
,
W.
, and
Levsen
,
K.
, 1995
, “
Chronic Inhalation Exposure of Wistar Rats and Two Different Strains of Mice to Diesel Engine Exhaust, Carbon Black, and Titanium Dioxide
,” Inhalation Toxicol.
,
7
(4
), pp. 533
–556
.10.3109/0895837950901521111.
Jensen
,
E. J.
, and
Toon
,
O. B.
, 1997
, “
The Potential Impact of Soot Particles From Aircraft Exhaust on Cirrus Clouds
,” Geophys. Res. Lett.
,
24
(3
), pp. 249
–252
.10.1029/96GL0323512.
Michelsen
,
H. A.
,
Schulz
,
C.
,
Smallwood
,
G. J.
, and
Will
,
S.
, 2015
, “
Laser-Induced Incandescence: Particulate Diagnostics for Combustion, Atmospheric, and Industrial Applications
,” Prog. Energy Combust. Sci.
,
51
, pp. 2
–48
.10.1016/j.pecs.2015.07.00113.
Santoro
,
R. J.
, and
Shaddix
,
C. R.
, 2002
, “
Laser-Induced Incandescence
,” Applied Combustion Diagnostics
,
Taylor & Francis
,
New York
, pp. 252
–286
.14.
Schulz
,
C.
,
Kock
,
B. F.
,
Hofmann
,
M.
,
Michelsen
,
H.
,
Will
,
S.
,
Bougie
,
B.
,
Suntz
,
R.
, et al., 2006
, “
Laser-Induced Incandescence: Recent Trends and Current Questions
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
83
(3
), pp. 333
–354
.10.1007/s00340-006-2260-815.
Li
,
S.
,
Ren
,
Y.
,
Biswas
,
P.
, and
Stephen
,
D. T.
, 2016
, “
Flame Aerosol Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials and Functional Devices: Processing, Modeling, and Diagnostics
,” Prog. Energy Combust. Sci.
,
55
, pp. 1
–59
.10.1016/j.pecs.2016.04.00216.
Santoro
,
R. J.
,
Semerjian
,
H. G.
, and
Dobbins
,
R. A.
, 1983
, “
Soot Particle Measurements in Diffusion Flames
,” Combust. Flame
,
51
, pp. 203
–218
.10.1016/0010-2180(83)90099-817.
Smooke
,
M. D.
,
Xu
,
Y.
,
Zurn
,
R. M.
,
Lin
,
P.
,
Frank
,
J. H.
, and
Long
,
M. B.
, 1992
, “
Computational and Experimental Study of OH and CH Radicals in Axisymmetric Laminar Diffusion Flames
,” Symp. (Int.) Combust.
,
24
(1
), pp. 813
–821
.10.1016/S0082-0784(06)80099-818.
Niemann
,
U.
,
Seshadri
,
K.
, and
Williams
,
F. A.
, 2014
, “
Methane, Ethane, and Ethylene Laminar Counterflow Diffusion Flames at Elevated Pressures: Experimental and Computational Investigations Up to 2.0 MPa
,” Combust. Flame
,
161
(1
), pp. 138
–146
.10.1016/j.combustflame.2013.07.01919.
de Oliveira
,
M. A.
,
Luijten
,
C. C. M.
, and
de Goey
,
L. P. H.
, 2009
, “
Soot Measurements in Laminar Flames of Gaseous and (Prevaporized) Liquid Fuels
,” 4th European Combustion Meeting (ECM 2009
),
Vienna, Austria
, Apr. 14–17, pp. 1
–6
.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239843985_Soot_measurements_in_laminar_flames_of_gaseous_and_prevaporized_liquid_fuels20.
Kent
,
J. H.
, and
Honnery
,
D. R.
, 1990
, “
A Soot Formation Rate Map for a Laminar Ethylene Diffusion Flame
,” Combust. Flame
,
79
(3–4
), pp. 287
–298
.10.1016/0010-2180(90)90140-M21.
Mahmoud
,
S. M.
,
Nathan
,
G. J.
,
Alwahabi
,
Z. T.
,
Sun
,
Z. W.
,
Medwell
,
P. R.
, and
Dally
,
B. B.
, 2017
, “
The Effect of Exit Strain Rate on Soot Volume Fraction in Turbulent Non-Premixed Jet Flames
,” Proc. Combust. Inst.
,
36
(1
), pp. 889
–897
.10.1016/j.proci.2016.08.05522.
Mahmoud
,
S. M.
,
Nathan
,
G. J.
,
Alwahabi
,
Z. T.
,
Sun
,
Z. W.
,
Medwell
,
P. R.
, and
Dally
,
B. B.
, 2018
, “
The Effect of Exit Reynolds Number on Soot Volume Fraction in Turbulent Non-Premixed Jet Flames
,” Combust. Flame
,
187
, pp. 42
–51
.10.1016/j.combustflame.2017.08.02023.
University of Adelaide, 2020, International Sooting Flame Workshop, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia, accessed July 2020, https://www.adelaide.edu.au/cet/isfworkshop/data-sets
24.
Young
,
K. J.
,
Stewart
,
C. D.
, and
Moss
,
J. B.
, 1994
, “
Soot Formation in Turbulent Non-Premixed Kerosene-Air Flames Burning at Elevated Pressure: Experimental Measurement
,” Symp. (Int.) Combust.
,
25
(1
), pp. 609
–617
.10.1016/S0082-0784(06)80692-225.
Zhang
,
J.
,
Shaddix
,
C. R.
, and
Schefer
,
R. W.
, 2011
, “
Design of “Model-Friendly” Turbulent Non-Premixed Jet Burners for C2+ Hydrocarbon Fuels
,” Rev. Sci. Instrum.
,
82
(7
), p. 074101
.10.1063/1.360549126.
Geigle
,
K. P.
,
Köhler
,
M.
,
O'Loughlin
,
W.
, and
Meier
,
W.
, 2015
, “
Investigation of Soot Formation in Pressurized Swirl Flames by Laser Measurements of Temperature, Flame Structures, and Soot Concentrations
,” Proc. Combust. Inst.
,
35
(3
), pp. 3373
–3380
.10.1016/j.proci.2014.05.13527.
Geigle
,
K. P.
,
Zerbs
,
J.
,
Hadef
,
R.
, and
Guin
,
C.
, 2019
, “
Laser-Induced Incandescence for Soot Measurements in an Aero-Engine Combustor at Pressures Up to 20 Bar
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
125
(6
), pp. 1
–8
.10.1007/s00340-019-7211-228.
Zerbs
,
J.
,
Geigle
,
K. P.
,
Lammel
,
O.
,
Hader
,
J.
,
Stirn
,
R.
,
Hadef
,
R.
, and
Meier
,
W.
, 2009
, “
The Influence of Wavelength in Extinction Measurements and Beam Steering in Laser-Induced Incandescence Measurements in Sooting Flames
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
96
(4
), pp. 683
–694
.10.1007/s00340-009-3550-829.
Vander Wal
,
R. L.
, and
Dietrich
,
D. L.
, 1995
, “
Laser-Induced Incandescence Applied to Droplet Combustion
,” Appl. Opt.
,
34
(6
), pp. 1103
–1107
.10.1364/AO.34.00110330.
Wang
,
L. Y.
,
Bauer
,
C. K.
, and
Gülder
,
Ö. L.
, 2019
, “
Soot and Flow Field in Turbulent Swirl-Stabilized Spray Flames of Jet A-1 in a Model Combustor
,” Proc. Combust. Inst.
,
37
(4
), pp. 5437
–5444
.10.1016/j.proci.2018.05.09331.
Meier
,
U.
,
Heinze
,
J.
,
Magens
,
E.
,
Schroll
,
M.
,
Hassa
,
C.
,
Bake
,
S.
, and
Doerr
,
T.
, 2015
, “
Optically Accessible Multisector Combustor: Application and Challenges of Laser Techniques at Realistic Operating Conditions
,” ASME
Paper No. GT2015-43391.10.1115/GT2015-4339132.
Tesner
,
P. A.
,
Smegiriova
,
T. D.
, and
Knorre
,
V. G.
, 1971
, “
Kinetics of Dispersed Carbon Formation
,” Combust. Flame
,
17
(2
), pp. 253
–260
.10.1016/S0010-2180(71)80168-233.
Magnussen
,
B. F.
, and
Hjertager
,
B. H.
, 1977
, “
On Mathematical Modeling of Turbulent Combustion With Special Emphasis on Soot Formation and Combustion
,” Symp. (Int.) Combust.
,
16
(1
), pp. 719
–729
.10.1016/S0082-0784(77)80366-434.
Sarlak
,
R.
,
Shams
,
M.
, and
Ebrahimi
,
R.
, 2012
, “
Numerical Simulation of Soot Formation in a Turbulent Diffusion Flame: Comparison Among Three Soot Formation Models
,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C
,
226
(5
), pp. 1290
–1301
.10.1177/095440621142199735.
Chouaieb
,
S.
,
Kriaa
,
W.
,
Mhiri
,
H.
, and
Bournot
,
P.
, 2017
, “
A Parametric Study of Microjet Assisted Methane/Air Turbulent Flames
,” Energy Convers. Manage.
,
140
, pp. 121
–132
.10.1016/j.enconman.2017.02.07936.
Zellat
,
M.
,
Rolland
,
T.
, and
Poplow
,
F.
, 1990
, “
Three-Dimensional Modeling of Combustion and Soot Formation in an Indirect Injection Diesel Engine
,” J. Engines
,
99
(3
), pp. 597
–617
.https://www.jstor.org/stable/4454852737.
Mongia
,
H.
,
Al-Roub
,
M.
,
Danis
,
A.
,
Elliott-Lewis
,
D.
,
Johnson
,
A.
,
Vise
,
S.
,
Jeng
,
S. M.
, et al., 2001
, “
Swirl cup Modeling. I
,” 37th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
, Salt Lake City, UT, July 8–11, p. 3576
.10.2514/6.2001-357638.
Shanmugadas, K. P., Chakravarthy, S. R., Chiranthan, R. N., Sekar, J., and Krishnaswami, S., 2018, “Characterization of Wall Filming and Atomization Inside a Gas-Turbine Swirl Injector,”
Exp. Fluids
, 59, p. 151.10.1007/s00348-018-2606-039.
Cléon
,
G.
,
Amodeo
,
T.
,
Faccinetto
,
A.
, and
Desgroux
,
P.
, 2011
, “
Laser Induced Incandescence Determination of the Ratio of the Soot Absorption Functions at 532 nm and 1064 nm in the Nucleation Zone of a Low Pressure Premixed Sooting Flame
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
104
(2
), pp. 297
–305
.10.1007/s00340-011-4372-z40.
Bengtsson
,
P. E.
, and
Aldén
,
M.
, 1995
, “
Soot-Visualization Strategies Using Laser Techniques
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
60
(1
), pp. 51
–59
.10.1007/BF0108207341.
Smallwood
,
G. J.
, 2008
, “
A Critique of Laser-Induced Incandescence for the Measurement of Soot
,” Ph.D. dissertation
,
Cranefield University
,
Cranefield, UK
.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236884581_A_critique_of_laserinduced_incandescence_for_the_measurement_of_soot42.
Mercier
,
X.
,
Faccinetto
,
A.
, and
Desgroux
,
P.
, 2013
, “
Laser Diagnostics for Selective and Quantitative Measurement of PAHs and Soot
,” Cleaner Combustion
,
Springer
,
London
, UK, pp. 303
–331
.43.
Michelsen
,
H. A.
,
Schrader
,
P. E.
, and
Goulay
,
F.
, 2010
, “
Wavelength and Temperature Dependences of the Absorption and Scattering Cross Sections of Soot
,” Carbon
,
48
(8
), pp. 2175
–2191
.10.1016/j.carbon.2010.02.01444.
Smyth
,
K. C.
, and
Shaddix
,
C. R.
, 1996
, “
The Elusive History of m∼= 1.57–0.56i for the Refractive Index of Soot
,” Combust. Flame
,
107
(3
), pp. 314
–320
.10.1016/S0010-2180(96)00170-845.
Wen
,
Z.
,
Yun
,
S.
,
Thomson
,
M. J.
, and
Lightstone
,
M. F.
, 2003
, “
Modeling Soot Formation in Turbulent Kerosene/Air Jet Diffusion Flames
,” Combust. Flame
,
135
, pp. 323
–340
.10.1016/S0010-2180(03)00179-246.
Nakod
,
P.
,
Patwardhan
,
S.
,
Verma
,
I.
, and
Orsino
,
S.
, 2017
, “
Prediction of Soot Formation Trends in Turbulent Kerosene-Air Diffusion Jet Flames With Elevated Operating Pressure
,” ASME
Paper No. GTINDIA2017-4736.10.1115/GTINDIA2017-473647.
Hsiao
,
G.
, and
Mongia
,
H.
, 2003
, “
Swirl Cup Modeling Part 3: Grid Independent Solution With Different Turbulence Models
,” 41st Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
, Reno, NV, Jan. 6–9, p. 1349
.10.2514/6.2003-134948.
Giridharan
,
M.
,
Mongia
,
H.
, and
Jeng
,
S. M.
, 2003
, “
Swirl Cup Modeling-Part VIII: Spray Combustion in CFM-56 Single-Cup Flame Tube
,” 41st Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
, Reno, NV, Jan. 6–9, p. 319
.10.2514/6.2003-31949.
Menter
,
F.
, 2018
, “
Stress-Blended Eddy Simulation (SBES)—a New Paradigm in Hybrid RANS-LES Modeling
,” Symposium on Hybrid RANS-LES Methods
,
Springer
,
Cham
, Strasbourg, France, Sept. 26–28, pp. 27
–37
.10.1007/978-3-319-70031-1_350.
Wang
,
S.
,
Yang
,
V.
,
Hsiao
,
G.
,
Hsieh
,
S. Y.
, and
Mongia
,
H. C.
, 2007
, “
Large-Eddy Simulations of Gas-Turbine Swirl Injector Flow Dynamics
,” J. Fluid Mech.
,
583
, pp. 99
–122
.10.1017/S002211200700615551.
Kim
,
J. C.
,
Yoo
,
K. H.
, and
Sung
,
H. G.
, 2011
, “
Large-Eddy Simulation and Acoustic Analysis of a Turbulent Flow Field in a Swirl-Stabilized Combustor
,” J. Mech. Sci. Technol.
,
25
(10
), pp. 2703
–2710
.10.1007/s12206-011-0741-052.
Stevens
,
E.
,
Held
,
T.
, and
Mongia
,
H.
, 2003
, “
Swirl Cup Modeling Part VII: Partially-Premixed Laminar Flamelet Model Validation and Simulation of a Single-Cup Combustor With Gaseous n-Heptane
,” 41st Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
, Reno, NV, Jan 6–9, p. 488
.10.2514/6.2003-48853.
Jeng
,
S. M.
,
Flohre
,
N.
, and
Mongia
,
H.
, 2004
, “
Swirl Cup Modeling-Part IX: Liquid Atomization Modeling
,” 42nd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
, Reno, NV, Jan. 5–8, p. 137
.10.2514/6.2004-13754.
Held
,
T.
, and
Mongia
,
H.
, 1998
, “
Emissions Modeling of Gas Turbine Combustors Using a Partially-Premixed Laminar Flamelet Model
,” 34th AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
, Cleveland, OH, July 13–15, p. 3950
.10.2514/6.1998-395055.
Held
,
T. J.
, and
Mongia
,
H. C.
, 1998
, “
Application of a Partially Premixed Laminar Flamelet Model to a Low Emissions Gas Turbine Combustor
,” ASME
Paper No. 98-GT-217.10.1115/98-GT-21756.
Sripathi
,
M.
,
Krishnaswami
,
S.
,
Danis
,
A. M.
, and
Hsieh
,
S. Y.
, 2014
, “
Laminar Flamelet Based NOx Predictions for Gas Turbine Combustors
,” ASME
Paper No. GT2014-27258.10.1115/GT2014-2725857.
Giridharan
,
M. G.
,
Held
,
T. J.
, and
Mongia
,
H. C.
, 2003
, “
A Wet Emissions CFD Model Based on Laminar Flamelet Approach
,” International Society for Air Breathing Engines
, Cleveland, OH, Aug. 31–Sept. 5.58.
Liu
,
F.
,
Snelling
,
D. R.
,
Thomson
,
K. A.
, and
Smallwood
,
G. J.
, 2009
, “
Sensitivity and Relative Error Analyses of Soot Temperature and Volume Fraction Determined by Two-Color LII
,” Appl. Phys. B
,
96
(4
), pp. 623
–636
.10.1007/s00340-009-3560-659.
Escudero
,
F.
,
Fuentes
,
A.
,
Consalvi
,
J. L.
,
Liu
,
F.
, and
Demarco
,
R.
, 2016
, “
Unified Behavior of Soot Production and Radiative Heat Transfer in Ethylene, Propane and Butane Axisymmetric Laminar Diffusion Flames at Different Oxygen Indices
,” Fuel
,
183
, pp. 668
–679
.10.1016/j.fuel.2016.06.12660.
Cai
,
J.
,
Fu
,
Y.
,
Elkady
,
A.
,
Mongia
,
H.
, and
Jeng
,
S.
, 2003
, “
Effect of Confinement Size on Swirler Cup Aerodynamics
,” 41st Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
, Reno, NV, Jan. 6–9, p. 486
.10.2514/6.2003-48661.
Frenklach
,
M.
, and
Wang
,
H.
, 1991
, “
Detailed Modeling of Soot Nucleation And Growth
,” Twenty-Third Symp. (Int.) Combust.
,
23
(1
), pp. 1559
–1566
.10.1016/S0082-0784(06)80426-162.
Markstein
,
G. H.
, and
De Ris
,
J.
, 1985
, “
Radiant Emission and Absorption by Laminar Ethylene and Propylene Diffusion Flames
,” Symp. (Int.) Combust.
,
20
(1
), pp. 1637
–1646
.10.1016/S0082-0784(85)80659-7Copyright © 2023 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
